تاريخ للنجاحات والفشل معاً في الهندسة

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?? ?????? ?? ????? ???????? ??? ?? ????? ???????? ?? ????? ???????? ?????? ????? ????????? ?? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ?????? ????? ?? ??? ??????. ???? ????? ?? ?? ????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?? ??? ??? ????? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ??? ???? ??? ?????????? ???????? ?????? ?? ?????? ???? ?? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????? ???. ?????????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ?? ???? ?????? ????????? ?? ??????? ?????? ?????. ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ??????? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ???? ??????: ??? ?? ?? ??? 1847? ???? ??? ?? ??? 1879? ???? ???? ?? ??? 1907? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ??? 1940. ??????? ?? ?? ?? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? [??????????] ??????? ????? ?? ??????? – ????????? – ??? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ????????? ?????? ??? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ??? (?????? ?? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ?? ??? ???????) ?? ?? ?? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???? ?? ????.

???? ??? ????? ???? ???????? ??????? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ???? ??????? ?? ??? ??? ?. ???? (Paul G. Sibly) ??????? ?. ???? (Alistair C. Walker). ??? ?????? ??????? ??? ?????? ???? ?????????? ???? ????? ???? ?? ??????? ???????? ???? ???? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ????? ??????? ?? ???? ??????? ???? ????– ?????? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ??? ???????? ?????? ???? ???? ?? ???? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ????? ????? ????? ????? ??? 1970 ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? (Steel Box-Girder Spans) – ??? ????? ?? ??????? ???? (Milford Haven) ?? ?????? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ?? ???????? – ??? ?????? ???? ??? ??????? (???? ??? ????? ??? ???? ????? ???? ????? ????? ??? 1967 ??? ?? ??? ??? ??? ?????. ???? ?? ??? ?? ??? ??????? ??? ?????????? ???? ????? ??? 2007? ??? ????? ?? ??? ???? ????? ?? ??? ??????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ??????.

???????? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ??????? ??? ??? ???? ?? ????? ????? ????? ???? ??? ????? ????? 2000. ???????? ????? ????? ???????? ??? ???????? ?????? ???? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ??? ??????? ?????? ??????? ????? ??? ??????? ????? ??????? ???? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????? ?? ???????? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ???????? ????? ???? ??????. ??? ??? ???????? ??????? ?????? ???? ??????? ???? ????????? ???? ???? ?? ???????? ??? ?????? ?????????? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????? ?????? ??? ??? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ???????? ????? ??? ??????? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ??? ????????. ????? ????? ????? ????. ??? ??? ???? ?? ???????? (Pont de Normandie) ?? ????? ??????? (2.808 ??? ?????? ???????)? ?? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ????? ?????? ???????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ????? ??? ??? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ??????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????. ??? ????? ????? ?? ???????? ??? 1998? ??? ????? ??? ??? ???? ??????(Glebe Island) ??????? ???? ???? ??? ????? ?????? 1.140 ?????? ??? ???? ????? ?? ????????? ?? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??????? ?? ?????????? ??? ????????. ??????? ?? ??? ??????? ????????? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ?????? ???? ??? ???? ???????? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ??????? ??????? [??????] ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ??????????? ????? ????? ?????? ???????? ??? 2009? ?????? ?????? ??? ??????? (Incheon Bridge) ???? ??? ?? ?????? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ???????? ??????.

?????? ?? ??? ??????? ??????? ????? ???? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ?? ?? ??? ??????. ???? ?? ??? ???????? ??????? ??? ????? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ??? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ?? ??? ??? ?? ????. ????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ?? ??? ????????? ?? ???? ???? ????? ????? ?????????? ??? ???????? ?? ???????? ????? ??????? [?????] ??? ???? ??????. ????? ??? ?? ????? ??????? ??? ?? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ???? ??????? ??? ??? ???? ????? ?? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ??????? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????????? ?? ????? ?????? – ????? ???? ?????? ??????????? ??? ???????? ??????? ?? ??? ??? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ??? ??????? ???? ?????. ??????? ?? ??? ?? ???? ?? ??? ????? ???? ??? 2010 ????? ???? ???????? ??? ?? ??????? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ?????.

????? ??? ?????? ????? ???? ??????? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ??????? ????????. ???? ?????? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???? ?????? – ??????? – ??? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??????. ???????? ??????? ???? ??????? ?????? ???????? [???? ??????] ??? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ??? ??????. ??????????? ????????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ?? ??????? ????????. ???? ?? ??? ?? ????? ????? ???????.

??????? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ?? ??? ???????? ?? ?????. ?? ???? ??? ??? ???? ?????? ???? ?? ???? ??? ??? ??? ????? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ??? ????. ??????? ??? ?? ????? ???? ???? ??? ??? ????? ???? ?? ??? ???????? ?? ??? 1987 ???????? ????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ????? ??? ????? ??? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ???? ????? ????? ????? ??????? ???? ????????? ???????? ??? ???????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ???? ???? ??? ????? ????? ??? ??????. ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ????????? ??? 1975? ????? ???? ?????????? ??? ??? ??????? ?????(Auckland Harbour Bridge). ??? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????? ?? ??? ??? ??????? ?? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ???? ??? ??????? ??? ?? ?????.

?? ??????? ??????? ????? ???????? ??? ????? ??? ???? ??????? ????? ???? ?? ????? ????? ????? ??????. ??? ??? ????? ???????? (Gateshead) ?? ??????? ?????? ???? ?? ?????????? ?????????? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ??? ?? ??? ??? ???????? ???????? (Gateshead Millenium Bridge) ??????? ???? ????? ????? ??? ?????? (Tyne) ??? ??? ??? ?? ??? ??????? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ?? ?????. ????? ??????????? ???????? ????????? ?? ????? ?????? “??? ????? ???????” (Blinking-Eye Bridge). ??? ???????? ??? ????? ??????? ????? ???????? (Leslie Robertson) ????????? ?? ???????? ??. ??. ?? (I. M. Pei) ?? ????? ????? ??????? ???? ?? ??? ?? ?????? ????????? ????? ???? (Miho Museum) ?? ???? ????? ??? ??? ????? ??????? ??? ??????? – ???????? ??????? ????????? (Santiago Calatrava) ?????? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???? ???? ???? ????? ?? ??? ????? ?????? (Milwaukee) ??? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ????????? ?????. ??? ????? ????? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ??? ???????? ????? ??? [???] ?????? (Thames) ?????? ??? ???? ?????? (Tate Modern art gallery) ??????????? ???? ???(St. Paul Cathedral).